The continued survival of living organisms including humans depends on sustainable communities
Human activities impact on ecosystem function.
4.1
Species: groups of organisms that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
Populations: a group of organisms of the same species who live in the same are at the same time.
Depending on the method of nutrition a species acquires, this can be determined as autotrophs, consumers (heterotrophs), detritivores (heterotrophs), or saprotrophs (heterotrophs):
-Autotrophic (self-feeding): organisms make their own carbon compounds from carbon dioxide and other simple substances
-Heterotrophic (feeding on others): organisms that obtain their carbon compounds from other organisms
Consumers: heterotrophs that feed on living organisms by ingestion
-Some organisms have the ability of feeding through both heterotrophic and autotrophic systems.
Detritivores: heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from detritus by internal digestion
Saprotrophs: heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from dead organic matter by external digestion.
Identifying mode of nutrition:
Populations: a group of organisms of the same species who live in the same are at the same time.
Depending on the method of nutrition a species acquires, this can be determined as autotrophs, consumers (heterotrophs), detritivores (heterotrophs), or saprotrophs (heterotrophs):
-Autotrophic (self-feeding): organisms make their own carbon compounds from carbon dioxide and other simple substances
-Heterotrophic (feeding on others): organisms that obtain their carbon compounds from other organisms
Consumers: heterotrophs that feed on living organisms by ingestion
-Some organisms have the ability of feeding through both heterotrophic and autotrophic systems.
Detritivores: heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from detritus by internal digestion
Saprotrophs: heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from dead organic matter by external digestion.
Identifying mode of nutrition:
Community: formed by populations of different species living together and interacting with each other.
Ecosystems: a community is formed by the interaction with an abiotic environment.
Ecosystems: a community is formed by the interaction with an abiotic environment.
Inorganic nutrients: autotrophs obtain inorganic nutrients from abiotic environments.
-Some of these chemical elements are: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus in order to make carbohydrates, lipids and other fifteen elements essential for the living of organisms.
Supply of inorganic nutrients is maintained by nutrient cycle.
-Some of these chemical elements are: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus in order to make carbohydrates, lipids and other fifteen elements essential for the living of organisms.
Supply of inorganic nutrients is maintained by nutrient cycle.
Ecosystems have the ability to be sustained for a long period of time. Although human resources are unsustainable, natural resources teach us to live in a sustainable way, the three requirements for sustainability in an ecosystem are:
-nutrient availability
-detoxification of waste products
-energy availability
-nutrient availability
-detoxification of waste products
-energy availability
Application and Skills within Ecosystems
International Mindedness: The need for sustainability in human activities could be discussed and the methods need to promote this.
C.3
Alien and Invasive species: Introduced alien species can escape into local ecosystems and become invasive. Species that are native to an area are referred to as endemic, while those that aren't native and most commonly introduced by human activity are known as alien species.
Alien species compete with endemic species one they are introduced to their new habitat, affecting the biodiversity of the area. Both the absence of predators, and competitive exclusion, may lead to the reduction in the numbers of endemic species, meanwhile the alien species are becoming invasive. Competitive exclusion refers to the prediction that two species with overlapping niches can't continue overlapping these niches causing the omission of one species.
Impact invasive species might have on distinctive ecosystems are:
-Alien species have or develop characteristics that usually compete with native species
-Alien species might reproduce more quickly if lack of predators is an issue
-Resources that aren’t used by the native species might be employed by alien species
-Predation by invasive species can cause loss of biodiversity
-Alien species may lead to the extinction of species, mostly if they are endangered
-New diseases might be introduced by the alien species
Biomagnification: pollutants become concentrated in the tissue of organisms at higher trophic levels by biomagnification. Each stage in the food chain (known as the trophic levels) will accumulate concentrations of toxins; the predator higher than the prey. This might cause the concentration of toxins at the highest trophic level to be lethal. Bioaccumulation is known as the process of toxins building up in an organism; specially if the boxing in not easily excreted.
Discussion of the trade-of between control of the malarial parasite and DDT pollution
DDT: an insecticide that was used widely in the mid-20th century, first to control disease vectors such as ticks and mosquitos during and immediately after the Second World War and later on as an agricultural insecticide.
DDT: an insecticide that was used widely in the mid-20th century, first to control disease vectors such as ticks and mosquitos during and immediately after the Second World War and later on as an agricultural insecticide.
Macro plastic and micro plastic debris has accumulated in marine environments; some consequences might be:
-Animals eat or become trapped with plastic pollution
-Plastic absorbs goof organic nutrients, which spreads the toxins
-Plastic at sea can release bad orgain chemicals to the ocean that can bioaccumulate and biomagnify
Case study: impact of marine plastic debris on Laysan albatrosses and one other named species.
Macroplastic affects marine animals since this can be mistaken as a food source and eaten. The Laysan albatrosses is a large marine bird living around the Pacific Ocean, this bird mistakenly feeds plastic to hen resulting in constant mortality rates.
-Animals eat or become trapped with plastic pollution
-Plastic absorbs goof organic nutrients, which spreads the toxins
-Plastic at sea can release bad orgain chemicals to the ocean that can bioaccumulate and biomagnify
Case study: impact of marine plastic debris on Laysan albatrosses and one other named species.
Macroplastic affects marine animals since this can be mistaken as a food source and eaten. The Laysan albatrosses is a large marine bird living around the Pacific Ocean, this bird mistakenly feeds plastic to hen resulting in constant mortality rates.
International-mindedness:
Over 100 countries across the globe have agreed to ban the production of CFCs to reduce the depletion of the ozone layer.
Over 100 countries across the globe have agreed to ban the production of CFCs to reduce the depletion of the ozone layer.
C.1
The distribution of species is affected by limiting factors. Some factors that affect the distribution of animals are:
-Animals are adapted to survive in a specific temperature
-Animals vary by the different amount of water needed to survive
-Animals require a specific type of breeding site
-Animals require consuming specific foods
-Animals sometimes have establish and defend territory
Sampling populations isn’t the easiest task. Usually populations are large and can’t be counted directly or each of the populations measured. Therefore populations are sampled by generalizing small data. Sampling techniques are used around the world to have appropriate averages on communities are studied, which require investigation. Some sampling techniques are point sampling, transect, quadrat sampling, mark and recapture.
Some examples of transect and quadrant sampling methods:
-Animals are adapted to survive in a specific temperature
-Animals vary by the different amount of water needed to survive
-Animals require a specific type of breeding site
-Animals require consuming specific foods
-Animals sometimes have establish and defend territory
Sampling populations isn’t the easiest task. Usually populations are large and can’t be counted directly or each of the populations measured. Therefore populations are sampled by generalizing small data. Sampling techniques are used around the world to have appropriate averages on communities are studied, which require investigation. Some sampling techniques are point sampling, transect, quadrat sampling, mark and recapture.
Some examples of transect and quadrant sampling methods:
A keystone species: is one that has a disproportionate effect on the structure of an ecological community. Some examples of keystone species are sea otter, elephants, and the prairie dog.
Each species plays a unique role within a community because of the unique combination of its spatial habitat and interactions with other species. An ecological niche, includes the spatial habitat (where the species lives), how the species obtains its food and the interactions with other species.
Niche: mode of existence of species in an ecosystem; which includes:
Habitat: where species lies in the ecosystem
Nutrition: how species obtains its food
Relationships: the interactions with other species in the ecosystem
Interactions between species are:
Competition: interactions between organisms, populations, or species, in which birth, growth and death depend on gaining a share of a limited environmental resource.
Predation: the preying of one animal on others.
Symbiosis: interaction between two different organisms living in close physical association, typically to the advantage of both.
Mutualism: symbiosis that is beneficial to both organisms involved.
Bees- Flowers
Commensalism: an association between two organisms in which one benefits and the other derives neither benefit nor harm.
Anemone- Clown Fish
Parasitism: habitually relying on or exploiting others.
Mosquitos- Humans
Competitive exclusion principle: two species can’t survive with identical niches in the same habitat.
Fundamental niche: potential mode of existence, given the adaptations of the species (include only abiotic elements). This is the niche at which an organism could live in with the absence of other species.
Realized niche: actual mode of existence, which results from its adaptations and competition from other species (includes both abiotic and biotic elements). This is the niche at which the organism actually lives under with the interaction of other species.
a) Competitive exclusion in cat-tails
1. T. angustifolia has a higher g ass-free dry wt and a shorter range of water depth (unable to reach out of water locations) when placed with the T. latifolia in a natural habitat together. On the other hand, if these organisms were to be grown separately, the T. angustifolia would have a larger range of water depth with the ability to go out of water, but a less g ash-free dry wt.
2. The fundamental niche of a species is the potential mode of existence, given the adaptations of the species. As shown in the bottom graph, the ranges of water depth and the amount of g ash-free dry wt of both species vary depending on whether or not they compete with each other (realized niche) or not (fundamental niche). The realized niche is the actual mode of existence, which results from the combination of its adaptations and competitions with other species.
b) Character displacement in ants
1. The ant species with the smallest mean mandible size is S. xyloni
2. The frequency distribution in Arizona range from about 0.60 mm in both cities, but it reaches 1.00 in Tecna and 1.10 mm in Ajo. In the case of California, the mandible sizes vary from 0.5 mm until 1.10 mm. Both frenquency of sizes have dominance in 0.75 mm while the dominance in California is different depending on the city. In the case of Mojave the higher is frequency in equally located in 0.65 mm and 0.85 mm, while in Baker the higher frequency is found in 0.65 mm. In the case of the data analysis in the state of Arizona and the city of Baker, California, both graphs appear to be positively skewed while the graph of Mojave, California is equally balanced through the mandible sizes.
3. In the case of a fundamental niche of the Veromessor pergandei, the rage of the mandible size classes would display from a size of 0.45 until the size of 1.15. Meaning that the size of the seed will also be smaller and larger, they could eat different size of seeds.
4. The fundamental niche of the Veromessor pergandei would range from 0.45 to 1.15; in the case of the realized niche due to competition with other species, the spread of the mandible sizes decrease. In the case of ants in Tecna, Arizona, the S. xyloni and P. californicus have competed for diets which require a mandible size of 0.45/ 1.05; eliminating the possibility of Veromessor pergandei having mandibles of these sizes, also known as competitive exclusion. In some cases despite the existence of competition, both ants have the ability to coexist. For example, in Ajo, Arizona P. pima and Veromessor pergandei have the ability to consume similar sizes of seeds without excluding each other.
1. T. angustifolia has a higher g ass-free dry wt and a shorter range of water depth (unable to reach out of water locations) when placed with the T. latifolia in a natural habitat together. On the other hand, if these organisms were to be grown separately, the T. angustifolia would have a larger range of water depth with the ability to go out of water, but a less g ash-free dry wt.
2. The fundamental niche of a species is the potential mode of existence, given the adaptations of the species. As shown in the bottom graph, the ranges of water depth and the amount of g ash-free dry wt of both species vary depending on whether or not they compete with each other (realized niche) or not (fundamental niche). The realized niche is the actual mode of existence, which results from the combination of its adaptations and competitions with other species.
b) Character displacement in ants
1. The ant species with the smallest mean mandible size is S. xyloni
2. The frequency distribution in Arizona range from about 0.60 mm in both cities, but it reaches 1.00 in Tecna and 1.10 mm in Ajo. In the case of California, the mandible sizes vary from 0.5 mm until 1.10 mm. Both frenquency of sizes have dominance in 0.75 mm while the dominance in California is different depending on the city. In the case of Mojave the higher is frequency in equally located in 0.65 mm and 0.85 mm, while in Baker the higher frequency is found in 0.65 mm. In the case of the data analysis in the state of Arizona and the city of Baker, California, both graphs appear to be positively skewed while the graph of Mojave, California is equally balanced through the mandible sizes.
3. In the case of a fundamental niche of the Veromessor pergandei, the rage of the mandible size classes would display from a size of 0.45 until the size of 1.15. Meaning that the size of the seed will also be smaller and larger, they could eat different size of seeds.
4. The fundamental niche of the Veromessor pergandei would range from 0.45 to 1.15; in the case of the realized niche due to competition with other species, the spread of the mandible sizes decrease. In the case of ants in Tecna, Arizona, the S. xyloni and P. californicus have competed for diets which require a mandible size of 0.45/ 1.05; eliminating the possibility of Veromessor pergandei having mandibles of these sizes, also known as competitive exclusion. In some cases despite the existence of competition, both ants have the ability to coexist. For example, in Ajo, Arizona P. pima and Veromessor pergandei have the ability to consume similar sizes of seeds without excluding each other.
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